Chapter X: The End of the Draft and WAC Expansion

Chapter X:

The End of the Draft and WAC Expansion

The new director of the Women's Army Corps assumed her duties as optimism about an end to the war in Vietnam grew. In the summer of 1971, peace talks in Paris progressed toward a cease-fire and prisoner exchange. On 28 September, President Nixon signed Public Law 92-129, which he hailed as "the last bill for extension of draft induction authority." He also pointed out that U.S. troop strength in Vietnam had decreased from 540,000 in 1969 to 184,000 in 1971.1

The end of the war and the elimination of the draft would have a major impact on the WAC. For the first time since World War II, the Army would be draftless and would need women as a manpower resource. General Forsythe, the special assistant for the modern volunteer Army (SAMVA), considered recommending an increase in WAC strength to 20,000 by FY 1978-an increase that would almost double the number of WACs. Inroads had already been cut into traditional WAC enlistment and retention standards; such an expansion would necessitate granting more concessions. But another, more basic threat appeared as well. The women's liberation movement had created an avalanche of public and congressional sympathy for women and their right to the same benefits, opportunities, and responsibilities as men. Applying their goals to women in the military services, many of the movement's leaders urged that women be registered, drafted, enlisted, and commissioned in the military services under the same entry criteria as men; that women be admitted to the service academies; that restrictions against women in combat be removed; and that separate women's organizations be dissolved. Such innovation would be earthshaking; it would mean elimination of the Corps. The new director was caught in the crossfire of fights against overexpansion and for the survival of her Corps.

Mildred Inez Caroon Bailey was promoted to brigadier general and appointed director of the WAC on Monday, 2 August 1971, in the office of newly appointed Secretary of the Army Robert F. Froehlke. That evening General Westmoreland hosted a formal reception at the Fort

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SECRETARY OF THE ARMY ROBERT F. FROEHLKE, assisted by Col. Keith S. Lane, pins stars on the new Director, WAC, Mildred I. C. Bailey, 2 August 1971.

Lesley J. McNair Officers Club to honor both the retiring director, General Hoisington, and the incoming director, General Bailey.2

General Bailey graduated from WAAC OCS Class 3, was commissioned in the WAAC in September 1942, and was commissioned in the Regular Army in April 1949. A teacher in civilian life, she was first assigned as an instructor in an Army Air Corps program training French cadets in Alabama. Between 1942 and 1957, she served as a company officer at the Second WAAC Training Center, an intelligence officer, a WAC detachment commander, and in other positions. In 1957, she graduated from the Strategic Intelligence School. From 1958 to 1961, she was chief of WAC Recruiting for Third United States Army, and, in 1961, she

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took command of the WAC company at Fort Myer, Virginia, the Corps' largest unit. In 1963, she was promoted to lieutenant colonel, and, for the next six years, she was in charge of the WAC Exhibit Team. Completing that tour in 1968, she was assigned as congressional liaison officer to the U.S. Senate. In August 1969, she was promoted to colonel, and, in 1970, she was selected to be the deputy commander of WAC Center, Fort McClellan-her position when she was chosen to be director of the Corps.3

Unlike her predecessors, General Bailey retained the entire office staff she inherited. Col. Bettie J. Morden served in the deputy director position, but, because of her reserve officer status, held the title of acting deputy director; by statute, the position required a Regular Army officer. In June 1972, Colonel Morden was succeeded by Col. Maida E. Lambeth, who had served as the assistant commandant of the WAC School (19681970), graduated from the Army War College (1971), and served as the chief of the WAC Career Branch (1971-1972). Colonel Lambeth remained as deputy through the balance of General Bailey's tour and for several months of the next director's tour.4

A New WAC Image

One of General Bailey's first experiences as director involved a meeting with General Westmoreland. As she later recounted, the chief of staff had some ideas about WAC objectives: "In the first interview, General Westmoreland said to me-it left me gasping when I considered the ramifications-he said, 'General Bailey, I want you to change the image of women in the Army'-and he didn't give me any guidance . . . as to how."5 He wanted a new public relations image of the Corps-something creative that would attract young women's attention and draw them into the WAC for a lifetime career.

Over the next few months, General Bailey gathered ideas for a plan to satisfy the chief of staff's dictum. In February 1972, she presented what later became known as her "Plan to Improve WAC Recruiting and Retention" to the DCSPER, General Kerwin, who approved it for implementation. The first item was a recommendation to redesign the WAC uniform wardrobe. Brig. Gen. Lillian Dunlap, chief of the Army Nurse

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SENIOR WAC STAFF MEMBERS AND WAC STAFF ADVISERS, January 1972. Left to right, front row: Maj. Nelda R. Cade, Lt. Col. Alice A. Long, Lt. Col. Mary Jo Sansing, General Bailey, Col. Mary J. Guyette, Col. Dorotha J. Garrison, Lt.Col. Frances V. Chaffin. Back row. Lt.Col. Lorraine A. Rossi, Col. Frances M. Yoniack, Lt. Col. Janet E. Ziegler, Lt. Col. Ann J. Previto, Maj. Rose Ralph, Col. Bettie J. Morden, Col. Mary E. Clarke, Col. Pola L. Garrett, and Lt.Col. Eva Veach.

Corps, and Col. June E. Williams, chief of the Army Medical Specialist Corps, agreed with General Bailey, and together they introduced as optional wear for all women in the Army a black beret, black clutch purse, black umbrella, and black patent leather pumps. They also recommended that white shirts and white accessories replace tan shirts, scarves, and gloves. The Army Uniform Board and the chief of staff approved immediate implementation of these changes-though they hesitated over approval of the umbrella, a traditional taboo in the Army. The plan also provided for an increase in WAC strength and called for an increase in the number of MOSS open to women; a reduction in the minimum body weight allowed women upon entry; a change in regulations to allow women to command men except in combat units; a change in policy to include WACs in all appropriate recruiting advertising and in addresses made by Army officials. The design of future troop barracks would provide for interchangeable occupancy. A civilian contractor would plan and conduct a personal grooming course for trainees and students at the WAC Center and School, teaching selection of cosmetics, hair styling, diet, clothes, etc. Men would receive instruction on the role of women in the Army at courses throughout the training and school system. The plan

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was aimed at improving the attractiveness of life in the WAC at a time when Project VOLAR addressed improvements for men in the Army. To assist the WAC director's staff in implementing and monitoring the plan, the DCSPER approved the assignment of an additional officer, Lt. Carol A. Martini, to ODWAC for one year. Within that year, most of the items on General Bailey's list had been implemented or at least initiated. Lack of funds, however, eliminated the grooming course.6

Growing White House and DOD interest in improving race relations and opportunities for minorities and women provided additional support for General Bailey's plans.7 In June 1971, General Westmoreland had named the DCSPER, General Kerwin, as chairman of a committee of general officers to develop an affirmative action plan to ensure equal opportunity for military and civilian personnel, regardless of race, gender, religious beliefs, or national origin. The chief of staff had made it clear that development of a comprehensive plan and its execution and progress would receive top priority throughout the Army. General Kerwin established the Office of Equal Opportunity Programs, gave it directorate status, and assigned Col. Harry W. Brooks as its first director. Colonel Brooks was to monitor the program, ensure compliance with implementing directives and reports, resolve problems, and report progress to the chief of staff. The heads of the general and special staff divisions and the major commanders proposed actions to be included, and the final plan, approved by the chief of staff and published in June 1972, contained General Bailey's goals of increasing the number of interchangeable spaces and of ensuring equal opportunity for servicewomen.8

Faced with imminent loss of the draft and the political activity of the women's movement, Congress was also taking a new interest in military women. In September 1971, F. Edward Hebert, the chairman of the House Armed Services Committee, established a sub-committee on the Utilization of Military Womenpower, headed by Congressman Otis G. Pike of New York. On 6 March 1972, the subcommittee called the directors of the women's line services to testify on requirements, recruitment, training, and utilization of military women. General Bailey spoke for the WAC. She outlined the system for identifying requirements by

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gender, explained the interchangeable code, described the training at Fort McClellan, listed forty-one new MOSs opened to women, and explained Army policy on barring women from combat duty, from duty in isolated locations, and from tasks requiring prolonged physical labor. She asked Congress to provide equalizing legislation to give married women dependency rights and quarters allowances. She discussed the Army's plan to increase WAC strength by 50 percent by the end of FY 1978, contingent upon receiving the funds and personnel spaces to do so.9

After the directors had made their statements, committee members questioned the women more closely on their plans and their beliefs. Asked whether women should be used in combat roles, General Bailey replied, "As long as our culture remains as it is and public opinion remains as it is, I do not believe in the foreseeable future that the general public would accept the idea of women being trained and utilized in combat duty."10 When asked to comment on whether women should be admitted to the service academies, all the directors except one agreed that these institutions should train only combat and seagoing officers. Brig. Gen. Jeanne M. Holm, Director, Women in the Air Force, sided with Secretary of the Air Force Robert C. Seamans, Jr., who said he would accept women at the U.S. Air Force Academy if Congress appropriated the funds to furnish adequate housing and uniforms. Congressman Samuel S. Stratton of New York was particularly interested in this subject because earlier that year, another member of the New York delegation, Senator Jacob K. Javits, had nominated a woman for entry into the U.S. Naval Academy, and the nomination had been turned down by Secretary of the Navy John H. Chaffee. Both Senator Javits and Congressman Stratton had been outraged by the Navy's negative response. When the director of the WAVES, Capt. Robin L. Quigley, agreed with the secretary, Congressman Stratton concluded the questioning by telling Captain Quigley: "The world is changing, and . . . the Navy in this regard has not changed fast enough .... I am going to say flatly, the day is not far off when you will have women in the Naval Academy." And the way he said it, the women believed it.11

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In his closing remarks to the women directors, the chairman commented on the conservatism apparent in their statements and responses: "It has been an interesting session. When I first came to this committee and the chairman was Mr. Vinson, he used to say, `Well, we want to "hep" you.' I have had the ugly feeling today that Mr. Stratton and I want to 'hep' you more than you want to be 'hepped.' "12

The Expansion Plans

Interest in the expansion of the WAC grew as the end of the draft approached. In April 1970, President Nixon had declared he would reduce and eventually eliminate the draft. The DCSPER and DWAC staffs had then produced a plan to expand the WAC to 18,700 enlisted women and 1,400 officers by 30 June 1978. The estimated cost was $14.8 million-primarily for construction of barracks and classrooms at WAC Center and funds to rehabilitate male barracks for women at Army posts around the world. The members of the Army staff approved the plan, as did the WAC director, contingent upon receiving the necessary funds and personnel spaces to implement it fully. Chief of Staff Westmoreland approved the plan on 28 June 1971 and directed the deputy chief of staff for logistics (DCSLOG) to seek new construction funds or Project Volunteer funds to finance the expansion. The assistant chief of staff for force development (ACSFOR) would provide the necessary manpower spaces. By year's end, efforts to obtain the funds had failed. But the DCSPER, General Kerwin, could not drop the idea. With the future of an allvolunteer Army in doubt, he continued to seek funds from Congress to support WAC expansion. As an interim measure, he asked the commanding general of the Continental Army Command (CONARC) to formulate plans for maximum WAC expansion during FY 1973 at "no cost or low cost" to the Army. In turn, the CONARC commander asked the commanders of Army posts and separate activities how much they could do. Based on their responses, General Kerwin told General Westmoreland that, using currently available resources, the WAC could be expanded by approximately 1,000 women by 30 June 1973. The chief of staff approved the plan.13

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A week later, however, Secretary Froehlke, faced with reports projecting that the elimination of the draft would leave the Army unable to maintain a minimum of thirteen active duty divisions after FY 1974, called upon the Army staff for a plan that would achieve the speediest and largest supportable increase in the WAC. On 16 June 1972, he directed the chief of staff "to close the military manpower gap."14 The DCSPER and DWAC staffs responded quickly. Earlier they had drafted a detailed proposal that would have increased the WAC by 100 percent over its actual 1972 strength by 30 June 1978. Their "Plan for the Expansion of the Women's Army Corps" was updated and submitted to the secretary on 20 July 1972. Secretary Froehlke approved it on 24 July and promised funds and personnel spaces to implement it.15

On 7 August, after Congress had been informed, General Bailey announced to the press that WAC enlisted strength would be increased to 23,800 by 30 June 1978. She also announced that, as a result of a recently completed study, enlisted women could serve in 437 of the Army's 485 MOSs. The MOSs included the traditional ones in administration, medical care, and communications, but women now had opportunities in nontraditional jobs as well-ammunition specialist, chaplain's assistant, decontamination specialist, dog trainer, plumber, quarryman, seaman, and others. Both announcements generated wide publicity from the news media and great interest from the general public.16

The decision to open all but forty-eight MOSS to WACs came as a surprise to many. It was the culmination of a six-month study conducted by the Personnel Management Development Office (PMDO), Office of Personnel Operations (OPO), Enlisted Personnel Directorate (EPD), in conjunction with ODWAC. General Bailey had personally participated in the effort. Momentum for the study came from her desire to eliminate the old policies, practices, and procedures governing utilization of women that had impeded the women's entry into new career fields. At the director's urging, Harry Vavra, a senior OPO occupational analyst, had conducted a close examination of all MOSs. At one point, he had attempted to compare occupations open to women in the three services, but differences in nomenclature, job titles, scope of duties, and classification systems made the comparison impracticable. That work, however, had revealed that all of the services used women primarily in the administrative, medical care, and communications fields and exempted them from duty involving combat, close combat support, sea duty, aviation piloting,

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heavy lifting, or strenuous physical activity. Mr. Vavra had noted that each of the services thinks it has "less discrimination on the basis of sex than do other services."17 His group concluded that women should be excluded from only the forty-eight MOSS that involve combat, hazardous duty, or strenuous physical activity. General Bailey added the recommendation that, in the future, the WAC MOS list include only the MOSs in which WACs could not serve rather than those in which they could. Generals Westmoreland and Kerwin approved the recommendations; General Bailey made the announcements in August, and the new list was published in October.18

Meanwhile, Secretary of Defense Melvin R. Laird had established a Central All-Volunteer Task Force to develop contingency plans to increase the services' strength if male recruiting programs failed to provide the manpower needed; a major project was "to study the utilization of military women and prepare alternate utilization plans by service for FY 1973-FY 1977." In March 1972, Brig. Gen. Robert M. Montague, formerly General Forsythe's deputy special assistant for the modern volunteer Army, had been appointed task force director.19 His group asked the Army, Navy, and Air Force to prepare plans to double their women's 1972 strengths by the end of 1977 and the Marine Corps to increase its women's force by 40 percent in the same period. The directive did not include women in the services' medical departments. The Army responded with a plan, to culminate in FY 1978, in which WAC enlisted strength would be increased to 23,800. WAC officer strength would increase to only 1,776 because that program was in a state of flux. The Navy and Air Force submitted plans to increase their women's strengths by 100 percent by FY 1977 (to 11,400 and 22,800, respectively); and the Marine Corps, to increase its women's strength by 37 percent (to 3,100) in the same period. General Montague and Secretary Laird approved the plans in May 1972.20

As a result of the DOD project, General Kerwin was able to provide Secretary Froehlke with the new WAC expansion program in July 1972. Success followed General Bailey's August announcements that WAC strength would be doubled and that women could enter all but 48 of 485

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Army MOSS. In the months that followed, women enlisted in the WAC in numbers surpassing the most optimistic forecasts. Many in the Pentagon had expected the campaign to follow the old pattern of an immediate flurry of enlistments followed by a drastic slowdown. For the first time in WAC history, this did not happen; enlistments and reenlistments continued to rise even during the traditionally poor recruiting months of December through March. Publicity about new career fields for women, elimination of old restraints, and a groundswell of euphoria and expectation felt by women as a result of the liberation movement and progress of the proposed Equal Rights Amendment accounted for the continuing momentum of enlistments in the WAC and the other women's services. General Bailey anticipated no problems in achieving the long-range goal of 23,800 enlisted women by the end of FY 1978.21

While the Army complimented itself on the progress of the WAC expansion, Assistant Secretary of Defense for Manpower and Reserve Affairs Roger T. Kelley was worried because, overall, military strength had fallen below congressionally authorized levels for FY 1972 and 1973.22 In the spring of 1973, Secretary Kelley alerted the service secretaries and the directors of the women's services that he would call upon them to again double the strength of the women's services by the end of FY 1979. General Kerwin's replacement as DCSPER, Lt. Gen. Bernard W. Rogers, promptly began work on a plan for 50,000 WACs. Meanwhile General Bailey briefed new Secretary of the Army Howard H. Callaway on the status of the WAC and progress on the current expansion. In commenting on the information she provided, Deputy Assistant Secretary of the Army (M&RA) Paul D. Phillips wrote: "We cannot limit women to 24,000 spaces in a 792,000 space Army .... We cannot wait until 1979 to reach 24,000 because there will be great pressure from OSD [Office of the Secretary of Defense] and the Congress to use more women if, as I project, we fail to attract enough men of reasonable quality to meet requirements."23 His words injected a sense of urgency into the development of a new WAC expansion plan.

In June, the DCSPER's director of plans, programs, and budget (DPPB), Maj. Gen. Eugene P. Forrester, met with representatives of the Military Personnel Center (MILPERCEN), the offices of the chief of reserve components, the DWAC, the ACSFOR, and the DCSLOG, and

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several ODCSPER directorates to discuss further WAC expansion. Availability of uniforms would be a major problem as mobilization stocks (war reserves) contained no WAC uniforms, but a concerted effort by the DCSLOG, the Defense Personnel Support Center, and the Defense Supply Agency could provide the needed uniforms and equipment. Training posed another obstacle as WAC Center operated only fourteen companies. The additional training capacity could be gained by activating WAC basic training companies at Fort Jackson, South Carolina; Fort Dix, New Jersey; and Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri. General Forrester assigned other problems involving shortages of drill sergeants, recruiters, and cadre to individual members of the groups for resolution; then he reported to the DCSPER that a target of 50,000 women could be achieved by the end of FY 1979 without lowering WAC enlistment standards.24

On 24 July 1973, General Forrester established a committee of general officers from the Army staff who were to meet weekly to direct development of the new WAC expansion program and to monitor its implementation. The committee, formally the Utilization of Women in the Army Steering Committee, did not decide matters affecting the Army Nurse Corps or the Army Medical Specialist Corps and was popularly known as the WAC Expansion Steering Committee. Within a few months, its membership was expanded to include general officers from the Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC), Fort Monroe, Virginia; Army Forces Command (FORSCOM), Fort McPherson, Georgia; Army Recruiting Command (USAREC), Fort Sheridan, Illinois; and the Office of the Assistant Secretary of the Army for Manpower and Reserve Affairs (OASA M&RA). The resources and decision-making power of the members ensured speedy resolution of almost any problem that might arise.25

At the end of August, the group discussed its first draft plan, which proposed to obtain the exact figure of 50,400 enlisted women by 30 June 1979. General Bailey objected to this ambitious undertaking. She felt that many problems, such as housing, had not been satisfactorily resolved. A few weeks later, however, after cognizant offices had resolved those questions, she agreed to the plan. On 9 October 1973, Chief of Staff Creighton W. Abrams, Jr., approved the plan to expand WAC enlisted strength to 50,400 by the end of FY 1979.26 The plan did not mention

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WAC officers, because at that time a proposal eliminating the WAC Branch and permanently assigning WAC officers to the other branches was under consideration.

The expansion plan detailed the recruitment, training, assignment, and housing of WACs. WAC enlistment standards were not to be lowered to achieve recruiting objectives, but expansion of the enlistment options open to women would help. The options included the Two-Year Enlistment Option, Service School Enlistment, Choice of Training and Travel, Warrant Officer Flight Training, CONUS Station of Choice, Two-Year Training and Travel, Stripes for Skills, Delayed Entry Program, Career Group Enlistment, Band Enlistment, Buddy Basic Training Plan, and the Special Unit Enlistment (SUE) option. The SUE option guaranteed assignment after basic training to specific units such as the U.S. Army Air Defense Command, Army general hospitals in the United States, Army Communications Command, Army Security Agency, and others. The Buddy Basic Training Plan ensured that if a woman enlisted with a hometown friend, the two would remain together through their initial training and first duty station. The Delayed Entry Program allowed women to enlist and then remain in a holding status for not longer than 180 days or until a space opened in a school they had requested. Other options were developed as the expansion progressed.27

Buttressing the appeal of these options was the now expanded variety of choices in both traditional and nontraditional career fields for women. Among the latter were many that had previously been described as "men's work"-maintenance, repair, and operation of electrical/electronic equipment; law enforcement; and flight operations and flight training. The chief of the Enlisted Assignment Division, Military Personnel Center, asked that recruiters distribute women evenly throughout the MOSs rather than let the enlistees concentrate, as they tended to do, in the fields of administration, medical care and treatment, and communications. He also asked the Recruiting Command representatives to push overseas enlistment options for women in order to achieve an evenly balanced number of women assigned in the continental United States (CONUS) and overseas. Better distribution gradually improved rotation and the chances for promotion of both men and women. The Enlisted Assignment Division no longer had trouble finding requisitions for women because by October 1973 over 70,000 positions had been designated as interchangeable. And, the DCSPER received the funds and personnel spaces necessary to activate nine WAC training companies at Fort Jackson. The plan also provided basic training spaces for approximately 3,800 WACs annually in the Army Reserve and the Army National Guard. To eliminate the uniform supply problem, the Defense Supply Agency assured timely receipt of WAC uniforms and accessories by offering bonuses to contrac-

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tors and reducing stock at clothing sales stores. If necessary, the initial issue to recruits would be reduced.28

The Elimination of Assignment and Career Restrictions

The expansion gradually forced the Corps out of its conservative pattern. Sheer numbers and the extent to which women pushed career patterns beyond those envisioned for Corps members since the WAC's early days challenged the Corps' mission as well as its personnel policies and attitudes. Another director might have resisted change; General Bailey did not. She wanted men and women to work together, sharing command, responsibility, facilities, and recreation. She also practiced what she preached and, in 1974, put a male on her staff. She announced that change at a weekly DCSPER meeting in 1973: "There was absolute silence for what seemed to me a minute or two .... Then, a very senior officer said, 'My God, who is monitoring his career?' It didn't surprise me that that would be the attitude. What surprised me was that this senior officer was shocked into expressing it publicly."29 The male officer assigned to ODWAC, Maj. Thomas K. J. Newell, did an excellent job as plans and policies officer, and General Bailey reported that the DCSPER staff "came to admire and respect him as much as we did."30

WAC strength had been kept low up to 1972 because the Corps' mission was to provide a nucleus of trained women in the event of mobilization. As it turned out, the Corps' strength burgeoned not from crises but from peacetime needs. The Corps' unique mission was thus lost and was deleted from the WAC regulation.31 The ever-rising WAC strength targets, however, also raised concern that enlistment and retention standards might have to be lowered if the Corps failed to meet its objectives. Such a move was as much an anathema to General Bailey as it had been to the other directors. To avoid it, she concentrated her efforts on modernizing WAC policies, keeping standards high, and improving career opportunities, housing, and other factors affecting life for women in the Army.

The opening of new WAC MOSS and enlistment options also brought elimination of some assignment policies that dated back to World War II. In 1972, General Bailey discontinued policies that precluded women from being assigned to mess halls that served only men, participating in law enforcement activities involving men, driving vehicles with over 21/2-ton

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capacity, conducting initial classification interviews for male recruits, recruiting men, performing supply activities in men's companies, and being trained and assigned in combat support MOS 16K, Air Defense Fire Distribution System Crewman.32 In 1973, she eliminated a policy that prevented women from being assigned to units lower than a theater army headquarters, another that precluded women from duty on closed male wards, and a third that restricted women from duty as physical training instructors for male personnel. The new enlistment options compelled further changes. The option that permitted women to choose overseas assignment as soon as they completed their training-that is, after as little as sixteen weeks-led General Bailey to eliminate the longstanding requirement that enlisted women and officers spend their first year on duty in the United States. In addition, she lowered the required ratings in conduct and efficiency from excellent to good for women to be assigned overseas. These changes brought assignment and utilization policies for women in line with those for men, with the exception that women could not be assigned to combat MOSs or to combat units.33

New Career Fields for Women

The success of the WAC recruiting program was now vital to the Army and, for the first time in its existence, the WAC had the full attention of the Army staff, major commanders, and commanders of separate agencies. Commanders, who in the past could find few interchangeable spaces, began to find many and to requisition WACs for them. One command that began to utilize women in MOSs previously limited almost exclusively to men was the U.S. Army Security Agency (USASA), an intelligence-gathering organization. Its predecessor, the 2d Signal Service Battalion, had employed thousands of WACs during World War II. After the Korean War, however, the agency used only a few WAC linguists, traffic analysts, and administrators. In 1970, as WAC expansion planning was beginning, the chief of USASA, Maj. Gen. Charles A. Denholm, took action to increase the agency's WACs-then forty-eight officers and enlisted women. At his request, the DCSPER and the director of the WAC approved the inclusion of women in the USASA Enlistment Option, both for administrative and operational MOSs-cryptanalytic specialist, traffic analyst, voice intercepter, and many others. The option proved popular with women who found the idea

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of intelligence work stimulating and liked the list of interesting USASA locations-Eritrea, Thailand, Turkey, Japan, Okinawa, as well as countries in Europe. By 30 September 1978, WAC strength in the agency, by then renamed the Intelligence and Security Command (INSCOM), was 88 officers and 1,203 enlisted women and was continuing to climb.34

Early in 1972, Provost Marshal General Lloyd B. Ramsey and General Bailey had initiated a pilot program to determine the extent to which WACs could be used in law enforcement. Only a few women had been trained in MOS 95D, Assistant Criminal Investigator, and were assigned to the U.S. Army Criminal Investigation Command. None had been trained in MOS 95B, Military Policeman, since World War II when WACs had been assigned MP duties at WAC training centers. After the war, a few WACs worked in administrative MP duties at various posts, but none had received training at the MP School at Fort Gordon, Georgia.

In September 1972, General Kerwin approved a pilot program to train twenty-four enlisted women in MOS 95B. In January 1973, twenty-one of the twenty-four completed the eight-week course, which included qualifying with the .38-caliber pistol, at Fort Gordon; General Bailey was on hand to congratulate them and present their graduation certificates. Distributed to seven Army posts, the graduates performed patrol, traffic control, accident investigation, and other MP operations. After six months, the U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC), successor to CONARC (1 July 1973), recommended, with the concurrence of the provost marshal general, the director of the WAC, and the provost marshals at seven sites, that women be utilized in the full spectrum of law enforcement duties, including criminal investigations, Armed Forces Police operations, patrol dog operations, and combat support operations. Well before the end of the year, after signing a written statement indicating they understood that they had to participate in weapons training, women were enlisting for training and assignment in MOS 95B. By the end of November 1974, over 1,400 women had graduated from training and had been assigned as MPs. Major commanders gradually converted 3,929 MP positions to interchangeable spaces-15 percent of all MOS 95B spaces in April 1975. Women entered the field of Correctional Specialist, MOS 95C, in September 1975 after a change in policy provided, for the first time, that women could be confined in stockades, disciplinary and correctional barracks, and military prisons. By March 1977, some 100 women were assigned in MOS 95C.35

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Another of the major turnarounds made by the Army and the other services was the decision to allow women to enter aviation and to take airborne training. In early November 1972, Admiral Elmo R. Zumwalt, Chief of Naval Operations, announced that WAVES could be enrolled in the Naval Flight Training Program. On 17 November, General Rogers, the DCSPER, initiated a study to determine whether women would be allowed to enter the equivalent Army program. The study revealed that the Army had approximately 2,800 noncombat aviator positions in grades warrant officer through colonel and that women possessed the mental, physical, and educational capabilities to fill them. After reviewing the study, General Abrams directed that women be trained as aviators. In September 1973, the first WAC entered the Officers Rotary Wing Aviator Course at the U.S. Army Aviation Center, Fort Rucker, Alabama. She received her wings on 4 June 1974. The next year, enlisted WACs entered the Warrant Officer Aviation Program at the same location and, on completing the course, were promoted to the grade of warrant officer, junior grade (W-1). The women followed the same academic, flight, and physical training programs as the men except that push-ups were substituted for pull-ups required for males. Initially, women did not participate in the survival and POW exercises, but that practice was changed late in 1974. The women pilots were assigned to general support, noncombat units, where they evacuated medical patients and transported routine passengers such as inspection teams. By 15 November 1977, thirty women (commissioned and warrant) had completed the Army's Flight Training Program and were assigned to duty in the United States, Europe, and Korea.36


Flight training prepares personnel as aviators; airborne training qualifies soldiers to use a parachute, providing them an additional combat skill as paratroopers. Airborne training is also required for anyone assigned for duty as a parachute rigger (MOS 43E). During World War II, women riggers had not been allowed to jump with a chute they had packed, as male riggers did. Instead, they rode on planes and watched the paratrooper candidates jump with the chutes they had packed.37 After World War
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II, women ceased to be assigned in the MOS 43E even though after 1961 the assignment was authorized for WAC reservists during mobilization. Now, in 1972, it returned to the active duty MOS list, and in August 1973, the commander of the XVIII Airborne Corps at Fort Bragg, facing an acute shortage of men in MOS 43E, urgently requisitioned WAC parachute riggers. Within a month, a WAC enlisted for the training, and others soon followed. After completing the Airborne Training Course at Fort Benning, the women attended the Parachute Rigger's Course at Fort Lee, Virginia, and were later assigned to duty in Quartermaster units at Fort Bragg, Fort Campbell, and Fort Lee.38

Within the space of a few years, the WAC had changed its rather staid image as an organization of clerical workers, administrators, medical specialists, and communications technicians to an organization whose members could enter careers not available to women in civilian life, could be assigned to interesting locations outside the United States, could work without fear of discrimination, and could earn a good living with outstanding retirement benefits. With a snappier uniform, WACs had finally begun to project a modern image, while policy changes affecting other aspects of their Army life further enhanced that new image.

Extending the Command Authority of Women

Under existing law (PL 80-625, 1948), the service secretaries were authorized to define the extent of women's command authority. In the Army and Navy, women could supervise men and give them efficiency ratings, but could not command them. Though men frequently commanded units that consisted of both men and women, the reverse was not true. The Air Force, however, allowed women to command any unit that did not require a rated officer (i.e., a pilot), and in 1972 it became the first of the services to assign women to command units composed of both men and women.39 In August 1972, Admiral Zumwalt followed suit, issuing instructions that authorized WAVES to succeed to command.40 With these precedents and continuing pressure from Assistant Secretary of Defense far Manpower and Reserve Affairs Roger T. Kelley to "eliminate all unnecessary distinctions in regulations applying to women," Gen-
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eral Bailey initiated action to obtain approval for WACs to command men. In December, Secretary Froehlke ordered that henceforth WACs could command any unit in the Army except one that had a combat mission.41

On the whole, granting women command authority roused little reaction. The first WAC to command a mixed unit was Capt. Reba C. Tyler, who was assigned to the 48th AG Postal Company, Frankfurt, Germany, in the spring of 1973. Later in the year, Col. Georgia D. Hill was selected to command Cameron Station, Alexandria, Virginia, an Army post under the jurisdiction of the commanding general of the Military District of Washington. In March 1975, Lt. Col. Mattie V. Parker assumed command of the Armed Forces Examining and Entrance Station (AFEES), Detroit, Michigan, the second largest of sixty-two AFEES facilities throughout the United States.42 The Army had made worldwide announcements of its policy regarding women in command positions, but reports of actual assignments were low-keyed. Chief of Staff Abrams concurred in maintaining an approach that was "in keeping with the Army's approach to its women-fair and equal treatment without fanfare."43

In fact, there were not many such assignments to announce. The number of women commanders increased by 30 percent between 1972 and 1974, a figure surprisingly low for a period when women could also command men and when WAC enlisted strength more than doubled.44 In this same period, WAC detachments at most posts merged with male units. Command of the new unit usually went to the male commander, because he had headed a larger organization and was either a senior captain or a major. A WAC detachment commander was usually a first lieutenant or a captain. Command positions in most mixed units, however, were later designated as interchangeable on the manning documents, and women then competed with men for these jobs. Battalion command of training units did not become interchangeable in mixed units and continues at this writing to require men with a combat primary specialty.45
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WAC Housing Policy Changes

The merger of male and WAC permanent party units in the field required a major change in housing policy. In preparation for the WAC expansion, the Army had begun to increase housing for women at posts in CONUS and overseas, wherever they were assigned or received training. The deputy chief of staff for logistics (DCSLOG) had advised commanders to revise their long-range construction plans to ensure the future availability of WAC housing at their posts. Post engineers converted male barracks for women's occupancy by removing or covering excess plumbing fixtures, partitioning bathroom facilities, and adding window blinds. Most posts did not increase their overall population; they just received a higher proportion of women than in the past.46

Before the end of 1972, it was apparent that WAC recruiting was exceeding all expectations and that additional WAC housing in the field would be needed sooner than expected. From July through November, the number of basic trainees arriving at WAC Center surpassed the planned-for 140 per week. In November, General Bailey issued the necessary new guidelines on housing and the assignment of enlisted women. Those in grade E-4 and above (rather than, as formerly, E-5 and above) could be assigned to installations or activities with no WAC unit. Commanders could follow minimal standards in converting male living quarters for WAC occupancy and could house women in leased civilian facilities-hotels or motels with the supervision of a WAC officer or NCO. If a separate floor or wing were available, women could share a building with men, though separate entrances for each were recommended. Women in grades E-4 through E-6 could live off post and receive a quarters allowance. And, in a major departure from tradition, General Bailey ruled that when a WAC unit became overcrowded, women could be assigned to male units for housing, feeding, and administration, if privacy were assured and a WAC supervisor provided.47

In mid-1973, as planning progressed for further expansion, General Bailey made additional concessions in the hope of improving the future housing and administration of enlisted women. Beginning in August 1973, enlisted women in all grades could be assigned to installations without a WAC unit. No WAC supervisor was required; women in all grades (formerly only E-4 and above) could be authorized to live off post and receive a quarters allowance. When women were assigned to a male unit
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for administration and housing, a WAC supervisor for inspection, counseling, and guidance was desirable but no longer required.48

The new policies resulted in the elimination of most of the WAC detachments between 1973 and 1975. Commanders eagerly grasped the opportunity to merge enlisted units, for they could now provide more housing for women, obtain maximum use of barracks facilities, and reduce the number of cadre needed to operate units. The merger also eliminated most gender-related variations in disciplinary and promotion policies. Unit mergers caused no major upheaval nor did they bring complaints from enlisted women. Most did not immediately move into new barracks, and women officers and cadre continued to inspect, discipline, and counsel them. In jointly occupied barracks, women lived in separate and secure areas; privacy for both sexes was preserved.

Integration of the sexes in training was similarly successful. In 1972, TRADOC discontinued the WAC Clerical Training Course, the Personnel Specialists Course, the NCO Leadership Course, and the WAC Officer Advanced Course at WAC School. With the abolition of these courses, and excepting combat arms training, WACs-enlisted, warrant, and commissioned-attended the same courses as male personnel. The WAC Officer Basic Course began to share academic facilities with the Chemical School on post, and that move provided the space needed for the WAC Center to open two additional basic training battalions.49

While housing could be improved by revising Army policy, statutory changes had to be made to correct a related problem. For a number of years, the Army had asked Congress for legislation to allow military women to claim dependency status for husbands and children. No fewer than eleven bills were introduced between 1968 and 1973 to remove the inequity.50 No bill survived committee. Dependency status was extremely valuable because it governed the military sponsor's entitlement to housing and subsistence allowances, and it determined the size of family housing on post, quarters allowance for off-post housing, and the benefits given dependents (medical care, schooling, transportation, commissary and post exchange privileges, etc.).

Then, on 14 May 1973, a Supreme Court decision rendered the proposed legislation unnecessary. Early that year, USAF Lt. Sharron A. Frontiero and her husband had charged the Department of Defense with discriminating against them by denying her dependency benefits equal to those of men. The Supreme Court held that such discrimination was unconstitutional. The comptroller of the United States followed with a ruling that the decision applied to the children as well as to the husbands
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of female military personnel. Women were allowed to submit claims for ten years preceding the date of the decision, in line with the statute of limitations on federal claims.51 The inequity had been blatant; its removal was wholeheartedly endorsed by the services and the women directors. Other efforts pursued by persons in and out of the services were not as enthusiastically received.

Statutory Enlistment Qualifications Changed

One of the objectives of the women's movement was to eliminate dual entry qualifications in all aspects of American life. Applied to the armed forces, the goals of the movement were to eliminate dual enlistment standards, abolish separate women's organizations, such as the WAC, and end the prohibitions against women's entering the service academies and serving in combat. By contrast, many in the women's services saw no discrimination in the separate standards of enlistment for men and women. The WAC leadership generally assumed that because men constituted 98 percent of the Army and men performed a wider range of MOSs than women, they required a wider range of mental and educational levels. Many men's jobs required strong backs far more than agile minds. To perform the duties for which women were trained-still primarily administration, medical care, and communications fields-enlisted women needed high mental and educational qualifications. But, in the 1970s, more WACs were serving in more MOSS than ever before, and traditional distinctions began to fade within the Army.

A bill introduced in Congress in 1971 to make the minimum enlistment age the same for men and women failed, but another, introduced in 1973, was enacted in 1974.52 General Bailey objected to lowering the women's enlistment age to 17, arguing that this change was not necessary to obtain enlistments and that accepting 17-year-olds would bring in too many women with adolescent problems of adjustment. She agreed to concur in the bill only when General Rogers, the DCSPER, assured her that, though the Army would have the authority to enlist women below age 18, the secretary of the Army probably would not choose to make use of it. However, contrary to General Rogers' opinion, in 1976, Secretary Martin R. Hoffmann, issued a regulation lowering women's enlistment age to 17 to duplicate the men's. The issue proved of little consequence; between 1973-1976, the average age of women recruits was 20.2 years.53
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Beginning in 1971, to enlist, women without previous service had to request a waiver if they were married or had had an illegitimate pregnancy. During the period 1 November 1971 through 30 October 1972, the U.S. Army Enlistment Eligibility Activity received 120 such requests and disapproved 15 of them. This high ratio of approval and the fact that men and women in the other services could enlist whether or not they were married or had had illegitimate children made it impossible for the WAC to require a waiver. The regulation was discontinued in 1973.54

In 1972, for the first time, the Army standardized the dependency criteria for enlistment for men and women-by allowing one dependent who, if other than a spouse, had to be 18 or older. Until then, a male with no previous service was allowed to enlist with one dependent; a woman was allowed none. Although the man's dependent was assumed to be his wife, it could have been a child of any age, or a parent. In 1973, the regulation was relaxed to allow initial enlistment with two dependents and, for the first time, spouseless applicants (unmarried, divorced, separated) with dependents could enlist if they submitted proof that their dependents were permanently in the care of someone else. The 1973 amendment was frequently abused. Men and women ignored their preenlistment statements and brought their dependents to live with them after completing training. Commanders found that single parents frequently lacked the time, money, and expertise to care for their children properly. In January 1975, the regulation was again revised to disqualify from enlistment a single parent who had one or more dependents under eighteen years of age. Married applicants with more than three dependents were also disqualified.55

The physical standards that women joining the Army had to meet had always been higher than those required for men. The WAC philosophy was that because women in society did not receive the same physical conditioning and stamina programs as men, women needed the best possible physical ratings to cope with strenuous Army training and recreation programs. In January 1973, the commander of the U.S. Army Recruiting Command complained to General Rogers that his recruiters could not explain to recruits why women had to be more physically fit than men to perform duty in the same MOS or career group. General Bailey explained that higher physical standards ensured that women could physically qualify in any MOS open to them and sustain their performance in it. General
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Rogers, however, believed the discrepancy in the standards would be construed as discrimination by the public. He directed that women's physical standards be aligned with the men's, with the exception, insisted upon by General Bailey, that women have no history of mental or emotional disorders. In 1975, this exception, too, was discontinued.56

In view of the determined effort by the women's movement and DOD to equalize enlistment standards, it is worth noting that neither the Army nor Congress asked for lower mental or educational standards for women between 1972 and 1976. Both wanted the public to know that the majority of men and women entering the All-Volunteer Army were intelligent high school graduates. Immediately after U.S. forces left Vietnam and the draft ended, many male enlistees were high school dropouts who scored low on the Armed Forces Qualification Test. WAC enlistees during the same period scored high on the tests, and their educational level was high. The women's statistics thus raised the overall averages. In February 1976, Senator Birch Bayh of Indiana introduced a bill (S. 3003) to require that mental and educational qualifications for enlistment be the same for men and women. Secretary of Defense Donald H. Rumsfeld objected to the legislation because it would remove the flexibility of the services to modify mental, physical, education, and other standards to select the best available men and women based on recruiting market conditions. The bill did not leave the Senate Armed Services Committee.57 However, after the WAC was discontinued in 1978, the then secretary of the Army, Clifford L. Alexander, lowered the minimum mental test score for women from 50 to 16 and allowed women without a high school diploma or GED to enter the Army. Enlistment standards, for the first time, were equal for men and women.58

Concerns Over Numbers and MOSS

Because WAC expansion had rapidly filled the gaps created by the loss of draftees, in January 1974 Secretary of the Army Callaway directed the Army staff "to exploit success" and recruit more women as fast as possible. As WAC members increased, they boosted Army strength but
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also created new concerns. In meetings with the secretary, General Rogers voiced his reservations about raising the WAC objective beyond the September 1979 goal of 50,400. He wanted to ensure that women could be recruited to fill not only the traditional but also the nontraditional MOSS in which the shortages of male recruits would be most acutely felt in future years. General Bailey also had reservations about expanding beyond the existing strength target. She was concerned that WAC accessions might again overtake the Army's ability to provide uniforms, drill sergeants, and housing-as had occurred in 1972. She further wanted to be sure that recruiters could achieve WAC objectives without requesting further changes in the enlistment standards. Secretary Callaway met with the concerned officials and agreed to retain the long-range objective of 50,400 enlisted women. However, he told the DCSPER to push WAC recruiting to its limits without lowering the women's enlistment standards and to consider a higher WAC strength objective for the future.59

On 26 February, the chairman of the WAC Expansion Steering Committee, Brig. Gen. James W. Wroth (ODCSPER) briefed the committee on Secretary Callaway's decisions. Maj. Gen. George W. Putnam, Director, Military Personnel Management (ODCSPER), asked that recruiting be directed toward enlisting WACs in MOSS that were traditionally less popular among WACs, such as repair and maintenance, "to prevent a surplus in MOS favored by females, and to insure tour equity and male progression opportunity."60 To accomplish this goal, the recruiting command decreased the monthly number of spaces available in the MOSS favored by women-administration, medical care and treatment, communications-and increased those in nontraditional areas. Many women who wanted to enlist had to accept training and assignment in a field other than the one they preferred. As a result, however, among all WACs, the percentage of women serving in nontraditional MOSS rose from 1.8 percent in 1972 to 22.4 percent in 1978. The greatest increase occurred in transportation, mechanical maintenance, law enforcement, electrical/electronics maintenance, aviation maintenance, and general engineering.61 But, as the MOS distribution problem was being resolved, a shortage of drill sergeants began to impact seriously on the expansion program. TRADOC funded a recruiting team that visited Army posts throughout the United States and secured some 100 drill sergeants to fill critical vacancies at Fort McClellan and Fort Jackson.62
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During this period Congress also sought to aid recruitment. In 1971 the lawmakers had authorized bonuses to men who would enlist in a combat arms MOS. So successful was this experiment that in 1974, faced with shortages in some nontraditional MOSs. Congress offered bonuses to men and women who enlisted in critical MOSs-fixed plant equipment repairman, radio relay and carrier attendant, dial central office repairman, power generator and equipment mechanic, and others. Bonus money, ranging from $1,500 to $2,500 for a four-year enlistment, did lure women to enlist in these customarily all-male MOSs.63

The WAC expansion derived additional impetus from another bill, which had been passed by Congress in 1973. Fearing the services would not secure men and women who could perform complex technological tasks, Congress, in its defense appropriation bill for FY 1974, required that 55 percent of all enlistees be high school graduates and that at least 82 percent be in the upper three mental categories.64 Although Army regulations until 1978 required women enlistees to be high school graduates, men could enlist if they met the mental and physical requirements of their enlistment option, whether they had attended high school or not. The tide of women enlistees helped the Army fulfill Congress' demands. The deputy commander of the U.S. Army Recruiting Command (USAREC) explained: "In effect every woman we enlist is the equivalent of two enlistments-a woman who is a high school graduate and a male non-high school graduate who otherwise could not be accepted. Thus, by enlisting more women we increase our capability of attaining our total enlistment objectives."65 The bonuses and the high school law helped USAREC surpass its WAC recruitment goals and, at the same time, increase the number of women enlisted in nontraditional MOSs. Against WAC recruitment objectives of 14,400 for FY 1974 and 17,200 for FY 1975, USAREC signed up 15,511 enlisted women in FY 1974 and 19,271 in FY 1975.66

Inevitably, the question of weapons training for women arose. Commanders frequently stated they could not increase the number of interchangeable spaces that women might fill because women did not receive tactical and weapons training. Combat support and combat service support units provided rear area security for their battalions. All unit members had to qualify in the use of small arms and use them in patrolling and
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guarding the unit perimeter to prevent enemy infiltration and sneak attacks. Without weapons training, women could not share this work, and men in the unit would have to pull double duty. In 1974, therefore, the steering committee, including General Bailey, recommended to General Rogers that defensive weapons training be reintroduced in the women's basic training programs, both officer and enlisted. Such training had been eliminated for WACs in 1963 when the carbine, a light rifle, was declared obsolete and Army trainers considered the new M14 rifle too heavy for women. Approving the recommendation, Chief of Staff Abrams directed the commander of TRADOC to add weapons training to WAC basic training. On 12 July, trainees began a sixteen-hour course to familiarize them with the M16 rifle; firing the weapon was voluntary. Recruiting literature and enlistment forms were changed to ensure that women knew, when they enlisted, that weapons training and use was a standard requirement. A year later, the rule was changed again. After 1 July 1975, defensive weapons training and the firing of weapons became mandatory. Thereafter, women's basic training contained a forty-hour course that included familiarization with and qualification on the M16 and other hand-held weapons. Women could now do full duty in combat support and combat service support units, and the commanders' objections were overcome.67

Expansion and Overseas Assignments

Another major challenge facing expansion planners was the need to increase the number of WACs overseas. In June 1945, the WAC had 15,908 women in overseas theaters. Though 17.5 percent of WAC strength, the number was only .3 percent of the total Army strength overseas of 4.9 million. In 1972, approximately 40 percent of all enlisted men and 8.6 percent of the enlisted women were serving overseas. The percentage of women overseas compared to total Army members overseas was still .3 percent.68

With the success of the WAC expansion, General Rogers wished to achieve a more equitable overseas ratio. Women should share with men the burden of performing overseas duty, and the number of assignments open to both could be increased. If women occupied the majority of positions in CONUS, whether in traditional or nontraditional MOSS, and were unable to serve overseas, the Army could not rotate men back to CONUS when they completed their foreign tours. Beginning in 1973, enlistment options under which men went directly overseas after complet-
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ing basic and advanced training were opened to women. The scarcity of male replacements induced commanders in Europe to add more interchangeable positions on their manning documents, and in 1974 requisitions for WAC officers and enlisted women increased from 100 to 500 a month. Commanders in Japan increased their requisitions from 20 to approximately 150 WACs per month. Those in Alaska, the Canal Zone, and Korea, who previously had requisitioned few WACs, substantially increased the number of WACs employed in those areas between 1972 and 1978. (See Table 23.) By 1978, 33.5 percent of the enlisted women and 27.7 percent of the women officers in the Army, excluding those in the Medical Department, served overseas. There they made up 6.2 percent of all Army personnel.

TABLE 23-WAC STRENGTH OUTSIDE CONUS

Source.' Strength of the Army Reports (DCSPER 46), Part I, 30 Jun 72, 30 Jun 78.

The shorter overseas tour that women served was the next inequity to be addressed. Regulations directed that single women and all unaccompanied personnel-those who chose to leave their dependents in CONUS while they completed an overseas tour-serve a two-year foreign service tour of duty. But single men and men and women whose dependents accompanied them overseas served a three-year tour.69 The director of Military Personnel Management, ODCSPER, had put the question before the steering committee.70 General Bailey had recommended that the tour for unaccompanied and single men and women be set at two years because housing overseas was poor. "With the rapid expansion and integration of women," she wrote, "housing has and will be for some time a
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critical item in Europe."71 The Corps' expansion had quickly filled the available women's barracks, and the buildings to which the overflow had been assigned needed rehabilitation. The U.S. Army, Europe, and Seventh Army commander, General Michael S. Davison, supported a shorter overseas tour for unaccompanied and single personnel, but primarily for a different reason. He believed the number of disciplinary and drug incidents could be reduced by decreasing the length of tour-especially for male soldiers who were most often involved. He also confirmed that bachelor housing in the command was poor and added that the cost of travel, food, and recreation in Europe was outside the price range of young soldiers, making thirty-six months overseas a hardship for them. He observed, "Despite the availability of off-duty recreation programs, young soldiers express continued disenchantment with Germany as a duty area."72 The surgeon general, Lt. Gen. Richard R. Taylor, also preferred the shorter overseas tour for single and unaccompanied personnel and opposed "action which will hurt our ability to retain doctors, nurses, and other medical professionals."73

Despite the support for a shorter foreign service tour, a budget crisis in 1975 forced the Army to move in the opposite direction. During hearings in 1974 and 1975, Congress chastised the Army for exceeding its budget for changes of station and reduced the service's appropriation for travel costs during FY 1976.74 To prevent another overrun, the Army, effective 1 April 1975, extended foreign service tours for male soldiers from thirty-six to thirty-nine months in Europe and Japan, and from twelve to thirteen months in Korea and Turkey. The tour for single women and personnel who were married but unaccompanied increased from twenty-four to twenty-seven months in Europe and Japan and from twelve to thirteen months in Korea and Turkey. Single men complained to their congressmen and to newspapers that women served much shorter tours. Because of this discrepancy and because of budget problems, the Army directed that effective 1 January 1976, single men, single women, and unaccompanied personnel would serve the same length of overseas tour. When the Army's budget problems lessened in 1977, foreign service for all personnel was reduced to thirty-six months in long-tour areas (e.g., Europe, Japan), and twelve months in short-tour areas (e.g., Turkey and Korea).75
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The Interchangeable Spaces Policy

An Army-wide increase in interchangeable spaces on manning documents was the key to continuing the momentum of WAC expansion and filling recruiting goals. During 1973, the U.S. Forces Command (FORSCOM), responsible for readiness, led the Army in documenting such spaces. The FORSCOM commander, General Walter T. Kerwin, Jr., DCSPER from 1969 through 1972, directed units and activities in the command to identify all of the Table of Distribution (TD) and most of the Table of Organization and Equipment (TOE) spaces as interchangeable. He excluded only spaces in units classified as Category I, TOE units-which had direct combat missions-and those that had a clearly justifiable requirement to be coded by sex. In his opinion, women's entry standards enabled WACs to qualify for almost every noncombat position, and he declared, "Unless we utilize womenpower, it will be difficult, if not impossible to fill all of our installation jobs .... The FORSCOM goal is to achieve true integration with mutual respect, understanding, and acceptance."76 So that lack of housing would not be a constraint, General Kerwin advised FORSCOM commanders to take advantage of the Army's new policies: "Minimum standards for WAC barracks have been changed to closely coincide with standards for enlisted men, making both newly constructed barracks and modernized barracks adaptable for either men or women."77 Although the process of recoding the manpower spaces in TD and TOE units was slow, General Kerwin had taken a giant step in reducing the importance of gender as a factor in Army personnel management.

In January 1975, General Bailey recommended that the Army adopt the FORSCOM policy. The WAC Expansion Steering Committee approved, and the DCSPER Directorate for Plans, Programs, and Budgets circulated for comment a change to Army Regulation 310-49. The change was approved by the Army staff. On 1 October 1974, the DCSPER, General Rogers, announced the new policy. All TD spaces and those in Category II and III TOE units-combat support and combat service support-would be coded interchangeable. Exceptions would be granted by the DCSPER when a commander provided written justification for a space to be coded for male or female occupancy. The new policy gave personnel officers maximum assignment flexibility and gave the DCSPER an enforceable regulation. Nonetheless, some commanders attempted to obtain exceptions to the new policy on the basis of vague criteria-remoteness, isolated locations, field environment, undesirable
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pressures, lack of facilities, brute strength requirements, emotional and logistical problems, and others. By 30 September 1977, however, approximately 275,000 spaces had been designated as interchangeable or female-only, and the Army considered establishing an authorized strength of 80,000 enlisted women.78

The Impact of Expansion on WAC Officers

Unlike the program for enlisted women, the 1973 expansion plan did not project goals for WAC officer strength. A single sentence declared: "Sufficient WAC officers will be procured and trained to meet requirements." 79 Changes affecting officer procurement and a continuing problem in determining WAC requirements had made the vagueness necessary. Army manning documents on 30 June 1973 showed only a small number of spaces available for WACs; 470 were for WAC officers only, and 2,788 were interchangeable spaces. An unwritten, but commonly accepted policy reserved 50 percent of the interchangeable officer spaces for WAC officers. General Bailey pointed out to the steering committee that this policy produced incredibly few spaces compared to the total of 106,000 Army officers authorized for FY 1973. And it provided little assistance in planning. At least five methods for projecting WAC officer procurement and strength goals for fiscal years 1976 through 1980 were proposed, but each had some technical flaw. Finally in 1975, the DCSPER directed that a computer model be developed using all the studies, experience, and data gathered on the subject. During the year or more needed to complete the task, the DCSPER used the ratio of male officers to total male strength as the ratio for female officers to enlisted women's strength to determine requirements for women officers. Thus, if the male ratio was 10 officers for every 100 men, and if there were 27,000 enlisted women on duty, 2,700 WAC officers would be authorized. Although the method was not entirely satisfactory, it was usable until the computer model could be completed.80
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But the search for a new formula was soon pressured by further changes. In 1972, Chief of Staff Westmoreland had opened ROTC to women and had included women in a new Officer Personnel Management System (OPMS). A congressional committee had voted to enroll women in the service academies. The impact of these actions was now beginning to be felt.

When General Bailey first became director of the WAC, one of the questions frequently asked by representatives of the women's movement had been "Why can't women as well as men be commissioned through Army ROTC?" The Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) programs were, and are, the most productive source of commissioned officers for all the services. At first, General Bailey was reluctant to relinquish the direct commission programs that produced high-quality WAC officers. But, in 1969, the Air Force began enrolling women in ROTC, and, in February 1972, the Navy announced that it would open an experimental ROTC program for women. Before the Navy's announcement, General Bailey had decided that the time had come to propose Army ROTC as a supplementary means for obtaining WAC officers. A few days after the Navy's announcement, General Westmoreland approved a similar experimental program for the WAC. Beginning in September 1972, the Army would enroll 200 women in the pilot program. For the experiment, 20 women would participate in the program in each of ten carefully selected Army ROTC colleges:

Eastern Kentucky University, Richmond
Pennsylvania State University, University Park
Florida State University, Tallahassee
South Carolina State University, Orangeburg
Louisiana State University and A&M College, Baton Rouge
Indiana University, Bloomington
Texas A&I University, Kingsville
South Dakota State University, Brookings
Arizona State University, Tempe
University of Hawaii, Honolulu 81

General Bailey's belief that the time was right for women to enter Army ROTC proved to be correct. The participating colleges were deluged with applications that first year, and a survey showed that 65 percent of the other ROTC colleges wanted to include women. With this encouragement, on 17 May 1973, Chief of Staff Abrams approved open-
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ing Army ROTC to women at all the colleges that desired it. Thereafter, enrollment of women in ROTC increased rapidly. (See Table 24.)

TABLE 24-WOMEN IN ARMY ROTC

Source: RB 20-2, Women in the Army, US Army Command and General Staff College, Aug 78, p. 23.

After weapons training became mandatory for women officer candidates and ROTC cadets in January 1976, women and men followed the same curriculum during the ROTC school year and at summer camp between their junior and senior years. Beginning in September 1976, women could enter the ROTC Flight Training Program as well. The combat-oriented Airborne and Ranger training programs for ROTC cadets remained closed to them.82

By September 1974, the program was so successful that General Rogers could predict the annual entry on active duty of hundreds of women officers through ROTC. General Bailey realized that she could no longer retain the WAC direct commission programs even as a supplementary source because ROTC could furnish more economically all the women officers the Army needed. The DCSPER and DWAC approved TRADOC's recommendation to eliminate the direct commission programs, to integrate women into the male Officer Candidate School at Fort Benning beginning in October 1976, and to close WAC School when the last WOOL class graduated in October 1977.83
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OPMS and the Integration of WAC Officers Into Other Branches

Few changes had been made in Army officer personnel management between the end of the Korean War and January 1972 when Chief of Staff Westmoreland approved a new Officer Personnel Management System (OPMS). Except for officers in the Medical, Chaplains, and Judge Advocate General's branches, which the Army administered separately, officers under the new system developed their careers along a dual track. They acquired proficiency in a primary skill associated with their basic branch and a secondary skill in one of forty-six specialties within nineteen career fields. Centralized selection was another major feature of OPMS; an appointed board of officers selected lieutenant colonels and colonels to fill designated battalion- and brigade-level command, district engineer, logistics command, and project manager positions. To administer the new system, officer education and training programs were realigned and the Officer Personnel Directorate (OPD) in the Military Personnel Center was reorganized to manage officer careers by specialty, grade, and branch.84

WAC officers were included in the new system, but few WAC branch requirements existed from which WAC officers could select a primary specialty. Therefore, a newly organized OPMS Steering Committee decided, with the concurrence of the DCSPER, DWAC, and the chief of the WAC Career Management Branch, that WAC officers would have instead a primary and an alternate specialty.85 WAC officer training was adapted to allow for such specialization. In July 1972, the WAC Officers Advanced Course was discontinued at WAC School. The basic course, retitled the WAC Officers Orientation Course (WOOC), was reduced from eighteen to eleven weeks effective 1973. After graduation from WOOC or entry on active duty from ROTC, WAC officers attended the basic course, usually nine weeks, of another branch. They later took the advanced course of a branch associated with one of their specialties. And, later in their careers, WAC officers, like their male colleagues, had their records reviewed by centralized command selection boards for selection to serve in positions of command in the grades of lieutenant colonel and colonel. WACs, however, were excluded from selection to command Infantry, Armor, Field Artillery, VULCAN/CHAPARRAL Air Defense commands, and Combat Engineer units.86
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To implement the changes, the commander of the Military Personnel Center revised existing regulations and directives regarding officer specialties, command, and career management and reorganized the OPD. The new system had not changed the Army's overall organization by branch, nor had it eliminated most of the branch career management sections in OPD. It had, however, brought about the abolition of the WAC Career Management Branch in OPD. Under the new system, WAC officers would not have a primary specialty related to the WAC. WAC officers would attend the basic course of another branch after graduation from WOOC or ROTC. Thereafter, the WAC officer would be detailed (i.e., permanently loaned) to that branch, and she would select a primary specialty related to it. After eight or more years of service, she would select, as would a male officer, an alternate specialty and thus begin her dual career track. OPD divided the forty-six specialties among managers who assigned the officers in their specialties, but coordinated their actions with the officer's basic (or permanent detail) career branch chief, also located in OPD. Under OPMS, the WAC Career Management Branch would not control any specialty; the only MOS it had ever controlled was MOS 2145, WAC Staff Adviser, which was converted to specialty 41X and taken over by the specialty manager. The WAC Career Management Branch, therefore, became obsolete and was discontinued after it completed the staff actions to integrate WAC officers into the other branches of the Army.87

The WAC Career Management Branch integrated WAC officers into the other branches by permanently detailing them. As soon as the OPMS plan was approved, in March 1973, the branch chief, Col. Shirley R. Heinze, and her staff reviewed the individual records of approximately 1,200 WAC officers to determine the specialties in which they were best qualified under OPMS. Approximately two-thirds fell into the administrative category (e.g., personnel, finance, training, etc.); the other third into specialties related to their career specialization programs (e.g., logistics, intelligence, foreign area training, etc.). The branch staff then sent each officer this information, along with a complete explanation of the OPMS, and requested her preferences. After receiving the replies in late 1973 and early 1974, Colonel Heinze contacted the branch chosen by each officer as her first preference and gave the branch a resume of the officer's qualifications. If the officer's first choice of branch accepted her for permanent detail, no other branches were contacted. If the officer's first preference did not accept her, her second and, possibly, third choices were contacted. In cases where a decision could not be reached by this
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method, a board was convened to make the decision. Early in June, the branch selection process had been completed. It had been a herculean task. The adjutant general issued orders, effective 1 July 1974, that permanently detailed 1,164 WAC officers on active duty to their new branches. (See Table 25.) The WAC Career Management Branch was retitled the WAC Advisory Branch and given the mission of coordinating aspects of the integration and advising the MILPERCEN and OPD staff on matters related to it.88

TABLE 25-WAC OFFICERS ON PERMANENT DETAIL, 17 JUNE 1974

* Those counted under WAC were scheduled for release from active duty, retirement, or placement in Medical Hold status.
Source: DA Special Orders No. 115, 11 Jun 74, and No. 127, 28 Jun 74, ODWAC Ref File, WAC Career Management Branch, Integration of WAC Officers into Other Branches, CMH.

Before leaving the WAC Career Management Branch, Colonel Heinze briefed her counterparts in OPD on the history and experience of the members of the WAC officer corps and the policies that had affected their careers. She recalled that the rules had allowed no promotion for WAC officers beyond lieutenant colonel until 1967, had required most
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WAC appointments to have a baccalaureate degree, had excluded WAC officers selected for civilian graduate school training from attending Command and General Staff College or the Armed Forces Staff College, had allowed only one or two WAC officers to attend a senior service college each year, and had precluded most WAC officers from command experience above the grade of major. She asked OPD to help eliminate the restricted utilization of women officers; to improve their training and education; to ignore marriage, dependency, and gender in making assignments. In closing, she was confident and optimistic: "The Women's Army Corps officers are equal to the new roles we have been asked to assume. You ... are in a unique position to help us prove it. We have great confidence that you will."89

WAC Expansion and the Reserve Components

The end of the draft also precipitated a great effort to increase the number of women in the U.S. Army Reserve (USAR) and the Army National Guard (ANG). Participation of women in the USAR had languished after the involuntary recall of women to active duty during the Korean War. At that time, the names of many women were removed from active duty orders because they had minor children or dependents, were physically disqualified, or could not be found. Consequently, the USAR had changed its enlistment and retention rules to match those for Regular Army women. In 1955, the USAR had 1,139 WAC reservists of whom 267 were officers; by 1970, it had only 306 including 84 officers. Little effort had been made to recruit women because the reserve had no trouble enlisting thousands of men in a 1963 Reserve Enlistment Program, which exempted such enlistees from the draft and required only six months on active duty. In 1967, the bill that had removed WAC career restrictions also authorized WACs to be enlisted and appointed in the Army National Guard. The National Guard, however, was so slow in developing its plans that no WAC entered the Guard until late 1971.90

In March of that year, a Reserve Forces Policy Board study recommended that the services take immediate steps to increase the number of women in the reserve components. It called upon the services to provide adequate facilities for women at armories and summer camps and to
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eliminate any inequities in the treatment of women. By June, Maj. Gen. J. Milnor Roberts, Chief, U.S. Army Reserve, had prepared an aggressive recruitment program for women and recalled a WAC officer on active duty to implement it. Maj. Rhoda M. Messer revised and prepared new USAR recruitment and training directives and visited USAR commanders throughout the United States, informing them of the recruiting program and explaining the new directives. In the summer of 1972, General Roberts launched a nationwide campaign to reach a goal of 10,000 women in the USAR by the end of FY 1976. The program achieved some success in FY 1972, but it was hampered by a requirement that women without previous service complete an eight-week basic training program at Fort McClellan before they could attend USAR drill sessions. Many employers would not release women for such a lengthy time without loss of benefits, although they routinely did so for men who had a military obligation under the draft. At the suggestion of Army recruiters, General Roberts approved an option to enlist women with skills acquired in civilian life and to give them two weeks of basic training at the WAC Center, with the balance to be served in their home USAR unit. Under the Civilian Acquired Skills Program (CASP), women who were skilled stenographers, clerk-typists, medical specialists, computer operators, or who possessed any of a hundred other skills, were enlisted as privates, first class. After they had completed eight weeks of basic training, they were promoted to corporal or sergeant, depending upon their skill level and the need for their MOS in the USAR. Between 1973 and 1978, over 15,000 women completed the two-week (later three-week) basic training program under CASP at WAC Center.91

Several programs also increased the number of women officers in the USAR during this period. Women who held baccalaureate degrees could apply for a direct commission, attend the eleven-week WAC Officer Orientation Course at the WAC School, and then enter a USAR unit in their home area. With the September 1972 opening of ROTC to women, that program provided a ready and fully adequate source of women officers for the USAR. As in the Regular Army, the direct commission program for the USAR was discontinued in 1977.92
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The Army National Guard initiated its campaign to obtain WACs in September 1971. At the outset, it accepted only women who had previous military service. But as commanders in the National Guard increased the number of interchangeable spaces on their manning documents, more women could be used, and in March 1972 those without previous service were accepted. Based on advice from General Bailey, enlistment and appointment qualifications for women in the National Guard matched those for women in the Regular Army and the USAR.93 In 1974, the National Guard also initiated a CASP for enlisted women who attended the abbreviated basic training course and for officers who attended the WAC Officer Orientation Course at Fort McClellan. Through these programs, the number of women in the Guard increased significantly. 94

The reserve components also benefited from efforts to eliminate differences between military programs for men and women. Congress, in 1977, gave women enlistees a six-year military obligation. Beginning 1 February 1978, women between seventeen and twenty-six years old who enlisted without previous military service assumed the same military obligation as men. Women who completed a three-year enlistment on active duty could complete the balance of their obligation in the Individual Ready Reserve-a pool of mobilization replacements who did not attend mandatory USAR or Army National Guard drill sessions. Women who enlisted directly in the USAR or the National Guard could serve the entire six years in a paid Ready Reserve unit, or four years in a paid unit and two years in the Individual Ready Reserve.95

In the 1970s, both the USAR and the National Guard opened creative programs for women. An all-WAC basic training battalion, largely the work of Major Messer, was activated on 1 September 1972. Titled the 1st WAC Basic Training Battalion, the unit was part of the 80th Division (Training), USAR, with headquarters in Richmond, Virginia. The WAC battalion, stationed in Alexandria, near Washington, D.C., conducted the balance of basic training required for men and women who completed the abbreviated CASP basic training program at Fort McClellan. After the WAC was disestablished in 1978, the battalion was deactivated (16 September 1978) and its functions were transferred to another unit in the 80th Division (Training).96
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Training sometimes required direct support from WAC Center. In 1976, the center was called upon to develop and conduct a basic training program for women members of the Alaska National Guard. The scout battalions of the 297th Infantry, Army National Guard, recruited native Alaskan women for duty in their battalions that patrolled the western border of Alaska. The women needed a special training program. After being contacted, the WAC Center and School assigned a team of trainers, led by Maj. Myrna H. Williamson, to the project. The team visited Alaska, studied the problems involved, returned to Fort McClellan, drew up a course, then returned to Alaska. They conducted the course for fifty-two women recruits at Camp Carroll in Anchorage; fifty-one graduated. The recruits learned map reading, marching, communications procedures, intelligence gathering, arctic survival and bivouac, first aid, weapons (M 16 rifle), and other subjects. During the course the class was visited by Maj. Gen. C. F. Necrason, Alaska National Guard adjutant general, and Mr. R. "Muk-tuk" Marston, founder of the Alaska Territorial Guard and the Marston Foundation. After completing the course, the women went to Army training schools outside Alaska for advanced individual training in communications, medical care and treatment, cooking, supply, and administration. Some received on-the-job training at units in Alaska before being assigned for duty with the scout battalions. The course proved successful, and in 1978, the Army National Guard in Alaska again conducted a basic training course for native Alaskan women.97

The WAC expansion inspired an abundance of studies on women's programs. One examined women in the reserve components. In November 1977, a review group appointed by the DCSPER undertook a study of the policies and programs for women in the USAR and Army National Guard for the deputy assistant secretary of the Army for reserve affairs. The director of the WAC, given responsibility for the review, appointed her deputy, Col. Edith M. Hinton, to chair the Women in the Army Reserve Components Review Group. Col. Shirley J. Minge, USAR, was named to assist Colonel Hinton. The review group issued a comprehensive report on its findings in March 1978. They recommended that the two-week CASP basic training course be eliminated in favor of a seven week course; that field commanders provide training to eliminate defi-
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MEMBERS OF THE 297TH INFANTRY, ARMY NATIONAL GUARD, await their graduation ceremony upon completing a special basic training course at Camp Carroll, Alaska, 7 April 1976.

ciencies in men and women's training caused by variances in the reserve programs; that directives make it clear to women members that they incurred a six-year obligation when they enlisted; that nontraditional training opportunities be emphasized in recruit advertising for women; and that the active Army consider the impact of its new policies and programs on women in the reserve components.98

The review showed the success of the WAC expansion in the USAR and the Army National Guard to have been as significant as it had been in the Regular Army. Primarily with the help of the Civilian Acquired Skills Program and its abbreviated basic training program, the USAR and the National Guard made exemplary progress in increasing the number of women in their organizations. Women in the USAR increased from approximately 550 (171 officers) in 1970 to 20,676 (636 officers) in 1978; women in the National Guard increased from zero in 1970 to 13,353 (455 officers) in 1978.99
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Other Women's Services

The WAC was not alone in experiencing management changes and a tremendous increase in strength as a result of the ending of the draft. Between 1972 and 1975, the other services also made sweeping changes in their treatment of women-changes which resulted in a major upswing in the number of women in those services. Officers and enlisted women entered noncombat service support duties in law enforcement, aviation, engineering, logistics, communications-electronics, and utilities. The Navy and the Air Force trained women as noncombat pilots and navigators, and the Marine Corps assigned women to administrative and maintenance support positions in the Fleet Marine Corps Reserve (2d Marine Aircraft Wing and 1st Marine Division). In 1973, the Navy reassigned Captain Quigley to the command of a mixed unit at Monterey, California, and did not fill the vacancy created by her leaving the position as director of WAVES. Brig. Gen. Jeanne M. Holm retired on 30 May 1973 and was recalled to active duty as a major general the next day to serve as president of the U.S. Air Force Review Board. That same year, the Air Force standardized its enlistment qualifications for men and women. In 1974, it added a course in defensive weapons training on the M16 rifle and .45-caliber pistol for new recruits and for women officers entering the service. Beginning in 1974, the Marine Corps deactivated most of its Women Marine companies and housed, fed, and administered women in the same units as men. That year, Col. Mary E. Bane became the first woman Marine Corps officer to command a mixed unit
when she took charge of Headquarters and Service Battalion, Camp Pendleton, California.100

Statutory changes concerning a variety of issues-age upon enlistment, a six-year service obligation, dependency status for women's spouses and children-and DOD-directed revisions in policy affecting waivers for enlistment and retention of women with minor children and elimination of discharge on marriage applied to women in all the services. When the draft ended, the value of women as a source of voluntary manpower soared, and many restrictions on their assignment, education, promotion, and administration vanished within a few years. The remaining issues-retention of pregnant women, entry of women into the service academies, and assignment to combat duties-did not slow the ever-increasing number of women in the services. (See Table 26.)
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TABLE 26-ENLISTED WOMEN, STRENGTH BY SERVICE

Source: DOD Selected Manpower Statistics, FY 1978, Table P26.62, Female Military Personnel on Active Duty, Officers, and Enlisted.

As welcome as the success of WAC expansion was to the Army, it proved to be a mixed blessing to members of the Corps. Success brought changes the Corps could not survive. In the first place, the heavy influx of women, beginning in August 1972 and continuing without surcease, stretched the ability of the Corps-whose original mission had been to maintain a small nucleus of trained personnel-to house and command all the new arrivals. WAC detachments were melded into male companies, and, with that melding, administrative control of women passed to male commanders. Without WAC units, the Corps lost most of its command spaces, and WAC staff adviser positions became obsolete. In 1974, the implementation of the Officer Personnel Management System forced WAC officers to leave the WAC branch, whose only peacetime function was administering women, and to move into branches that performed the Army's service and support functions. WAC expansion had been so critical to sustaining the all-volunteer Army that the DCSPER had appointed a committee of general officers to control the expansion, supplanting the guidance formerly provided by the WAC director. By 1975, loss of WAC detachments, WAC staff advisers, and the WAC officer corps and the declining influence of the director of the WAC had weakened Corps prestige. The Corps was left with little strength to withstand the well-intentioned, but destructive demands of the women's movement-elimination of the Corps, its director, and separate promotion list.
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School Year	Number Enrolled	Percent of ROTC Students	Number Commissioned
1972-73	212	1%	-
1973-74	3,098	9%	-
1974-75	6,394	16%	-
1975-76	9,324	19%	150
1976-77	11,838	22%	495
1977-78	14,296	24%	712
1978-79	15,265	25%	791

	Army	Navy	Air Force	Marine Corps
30 June 1972	12,349	5,723	11,725	2,066
30 June 1974	26,327	13,143	19,465	2,402

Area	1972	1978
Europe	473	13,671
Hawaii	98	974
Japan	90	377
Korea	20	1.593
Alaska	49	594
Panama Canal Zone	8	301
Other	450	981
Total	1,188	18,491

Branch	Col	Lt Col	Maj	Capt	1st Lt	2d Lt	Total	Percent
Adjutant General	5	45	47	93	56	135	381	32.8
Engineer	1	2	-	2	3	13	21	1.7
Finance	-	1	-	17	14	27	59	5.0
Military Intelligence	3	5	14	38	40	98	198	16.7
Military Police	4	7	6	29	23	66	135	11.4
Ordnance	1	4	1	7	15	17	45	3.8
Quartermaster	1	9	19	47	35	57	168	14.2
Signal	-	2	4	18	22	57	103	8.7
Transportation	1	-	-	18	15	36	70	5.9
WAC*	-	7	9	5	22	9	52	-